| 9. Integrated plant protection (IPM) |
The Principles of Integrated Plant Protection have to be applied. Preventive (indirect) measures and observations in the field on pest, disease and weed status must have been considered before intervention with direct plant protection measures takes place
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9.1 Prevention (= indirect plant protection)
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The prevention and/or suppression of key pests, diseases and weeds can be achieved or supported among other options especially by the:
- Choice of appropriate resistant/tolerant cultivars.
- Use of an optimal replanting interval or similar strategy to prevent diseases and weakness.
- Use of adequate cultivation techniques, (e.g. green cover, pruning, removal of infected prunings, alternate mowing); pruning not only removes dead tissues but also allows proper ventilation and more effective spray coverage.
- Use of balanced fertilisation (especially low nitrogen input) and irrigation practices.
- Protection and enhancement of important natural enemies by adequate plant protection measures.
- Utilisation of ecological infrastructures inside and outside production sites to enhance a supportive conservation biological control of key pests by antagonists.
IP guidelines must (see 8.1.3.c) describe a basic selection of preventive measures that have to be implemented.
The prevention and/or suppression of key pests and diseases must be supported among other options especially by:
- The protection and enhancement of beneficial organisms (e.g. predatory mites, arthropod predators, parasitoids, pollinators),
- Use of adequate cultivation techniques (e.g. green cover, alternate mowing, etc.),
- Use of optimum fertilization (especially low nitrogen input) and irrigation practices,
- Ecological infrastructures inside and outside production sites to enhance a supportive conservation biological and to control of key pests by antagonists (e.g. field margins, selection of native plants in hedgerows),
- Removal of infected organ/plants in case of uncurable diseases (e.g. apple proliferation, fireblight).
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The prevention and/or suppression of key pests and diseases should be supported among other options especially by:
- Hygiene, proper disinfection or cleaning of buildings, clothes, hands, tools, booms, tanks, sprayers and machines is recommended.
- Preventing the carryover of organisms which transmit a phytohygenic damage potential, when spread.
Examples: Weeds like Cyperus esculentus or Rorippa palustris, nematodes like Globodera rostochiensis, fungi like Plasmodiophora brassicae with machines.
The prevention and/or suppression of key pests and diseases should be supported among other options especially by:
- Choice of appropriate resistant/tolerant cultivars,
- Removal or destruction of overwintering sources of infestation or infection (e.g. wood scab, canker, brown rot, leaves against apple scab) as far as practically possible is required. For instance:
- Cardboard trapping of overwintering larvae of Cydia pomonella,
- Placement of refugia, e.g. for spiders or earwigs, in fruit trees,
- Removal of sources of infestation during the season such as powdery mildew.
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9.2 Risk assessment and monitoring
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Interventions to control pests, diseases and weeds must be based on adequate monitoring methods and tools to determine whether and when to apply direct control measures.
Robust and scientifically sound warning, forecasting and early detection/diagnosis systems (decision support systems) as well as sound threshold values are essential components for decision making.
The official forecasts of pest and/or disease risks, or officially established threshold levels defined for the region must be taken into account before treatments.
Diseases
- For apple scab forecasting models such as RIMpro, A-SCAB or CIMMET.
- For Fire blight forecasting models such as RIMpro or Mary Blight to verify risk of infections during blossoming.
Insect and mites
- Degree-days and phenology models (e.g. RIMpro, MRV, etc.) to adjust the mating disruption installation time and the need of reinforcement in key phenology times or the timing of other treatments; combined with other methods suitable for important pests.
- Monitoring of predators and parasitoids (e.g. visual assessment, beating) to assess beneficial-pest ratio.
- Visual assessment (e.g. aphid and mite in spring and summer; overwintering pests on branches, egg and mobile form counting of tetranychids).
- Traps baited with food based attractants (e.g. Fruitfly, Tortricidae in orchards with mating disruption).
- Use of pheromone or kairomone traps if available (e.g. Cydia pomonella and other pests).
Others
- Beating (e.g. Anthonomus spp., Rhynchites spp.).
- Colored sticky traps (e.g. Hoplocampa spp.).
- Halyomorpha halys - Brown marmorated stink bug (BMSB)
- Early detection by using traps such as dark green pyramid traps or transparent sticky panel traps. Some lures are also available.
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Empirical threshold values should be replaced by more scientifically sound approaches, like DSS, and expert systems.
Existing and validated forecasting models for diseases should be used and the use of adequate monitoring devices by groups of growers is recommended.
Sampling of fruits or other plant tissues is recommended to determine/assess the infestation level of phytophagous insects.
Sampling and assessment of stored fruits post-harvest can highlight potential problems in specific orchards the following year.
Sampling secondary pests with pheromone/kairomone traps if available is recommended (e.g. mealybugs, scales, trips).
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9.3 Direct plant protection method
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Where indirect plant protection measures are not sufficient to prevent a problem and forecasts and threshold values indicate a need to intervene with direct plant protection measures, priority must be given to:
- Those measures which have the minimum impact on human health, non-target organisms and the environment.
- Biological, biotechnical* and physical methods must be preferred above chemical methods if they provide satisfactory control.
*: Biotechnical control methods are defined in applied entomology as highly specific procedures that influence the behavior or development of pests without direct biocidal activity, such as mating disruption, deterrents, sterile insect technique.
Control method to be used if available and effective.
Insect and mites
Lepidoptera
- Mating disruption must be used as the basic method for control of Cydia pomonella and other Lepidoptera, wherever possible. Where an additional or alternative control measure is required, priority should be given to use of selective compounds.
- Granulovirus against codling moth and Adoxophyes orana.
- Bacillus thuringiensis against caterpillars and some leafrollers.
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Weed management should be achieved, as far as possible, by non-chemical methods.
Botanical pesticides for pests and diseases.
Diseases
- Using alternatives to chemical fungicides (avoiding sulphur).
Insect and mites
- Use of entomopathogenic nematods and fungi (supported by irrigation or with favourable weather conditions).
- Use of exclusion nets as physical barrier to keep out the orchards Cydia pomonella (this system can decrease the presence of Halyomorpha halys, mainly adults, and reduce damages on apple and pear).
Diptera
- Mass trapping or attract and kill could be used as the basic method for control of Ceratitis capitata, Synanthedon myopaeformis, etc. wherever possible.
Others
- Oils and kaolin clay for aphids, Psyllidae and overwintering pests.
- Halyomorpha halys: use of nets to avoid the entry of the pest and damages on fruits.
- Soft body insects (e.g.Aphididae) and Tetranychidae: a products with the mechanical mode of action should be used for control it.
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9.3.1 Restrictive use of pesticides
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IP guidelines must (see 8.1.3.d) classify pesticides (to be used for the key pests, diseases and weeds) in three categories: 'permitted' (green list), 'permitted with restrictions' (yellow list) and 'not permitted' (red list) based upon±
- Their toxicity to man
- Their toxicity to key natural enemies
- Their toxicity to other non-target organisms
- Their pollution potential for the environment (soil, water, air)
- Their ability to stimulate pests and diseases
- Their selectivity
- Their persistence
- Their potential to develop resistance in target
- Incomplete or missing information
- The necessity of use.
Regularly updated data on the eco-toxicological profiles of pesticides are compiled by IOBC cf. toolbox).
All agrochemicals used must fulfil the basic requirements of GAP.
- The plant protection product applied must be officially approved for the target, as indicated on the product label, or for officially approved off-label uses.
- In countries that have no official registration schemes yet, reference is made to the FAO Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides.
- All pesticide applications must comply with the statutory conditions regarding the specific crop, maximum permitted total dose, maximum number of treatments, spray intervals and pre-harvest interval, as indicated on the product label or authorised off-label uses.
- Since label doses are maximum doses approved by the registration authorities, reduced dosages are possible, (especially in herbicides).
Chemical soil disinfection is not allowed.
Based on the general criteria, the following categorization of pesticides and pesticide groups is established. It may require up-dating with the development of new products.
Not Permitted*
- Organochlorine insecticides and acaricides,
- All acaricides toxic to Phytoseiid mites,
- Antibiotics,
- Non-naturally occurring plant growth regulators,
- Persistent herbicides.
Permitted with Restrictions
- Copper-based products: (maximum of 4 kg/ha of copper ion /year).
- Benzimidazole fungicides (storage rots and blossom wilt and, as a paint for canker control, only).
- Dithiocarbamate fungicides (normally a maximum of 3 applications per season and not in succession so that predatory Phytoseiid mites are not affected. On pear crops in regions where Stemphylium versicarium is a severe problem, normally a maximum number of 4 applications per season).
- Sulphur (use must be limited so that predatory phytoseiid mites are not affected).
- Neonicotinoids permitted only as an exception (when no other methods available): max two applications/year (acetamiprid & thiacloprid are permitted).
- Pyrethroids: The use of a single/two spray application(s) of a non-acaricidal synthetic pyrethroid per season for control of Mediterranean fruit fly shortly before harvest is permitted, as well as for Halyomorpha halys. This is a temporary exception where no alternative control method is available, used as a reinforcement of other methods. Where such use is permitted by IP guidelines, a research program to find effective non-pesticide alternative treatments must be rigorously pursued.
- Persistent herbicides with DT90<1 vegetation period: the situations of their exceptional use must be clearly specified (e.g. in the first three years after planting, maximum of one dose-equivalent per annum).
*The list of “non-permitted” and “Permitted with restrictions” still contains group of active ingredients no longer allowed in Europe; if these groups are still allowed outside Europe, than these rules must be followed:
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The use of reduced dosages is recommended wherever possible in accordance with national documentation, experience and legislation.
In Europe EPPO standards are also used as references.
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9.3.2 Resistance management
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Where the risk of resistance against a plant protection measure is known and where the level of pests, diseases or weeds requires repeated application of plant protection products in the crops, IP guidelines and IRAC / HRAC/ FRAC** have to provide clear recommendations or mandatory requests for an anti-resistance strategy to maintain the effectiveness of the products.
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- IRAC = Insecticide resistance action committee
- HRAC = Herbicide resistance action committee
- FRAC = fungicide resistance action committee
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9.4 Lists to be compiled as part of IP guidelines
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IP guidelines must establish for each crop:
- A restrictive list of key pests, diseases and weeds that are economically important and require regular control measures in the region / crop concerned.
- A list of the most important known site-specific natural antagonist(s), with information on their importance in each crop. The protection and augmentation of at least 2 antagonists must be mentioned in advanced as a desirable objective sustainable production systems.
- A list of preventive and highly selective direct control measures to be used in the IP program (“green list”). See explanations and examples in the IOBC-WPRS Tool Box.
- A list of pesticides to be used with restrictions (“yellow list”): A selected group of plant protection products that do not qualify for the “green list” but should be available to the grower despite certain negative aspects, (especially for reasons of resistance management or earmarked for exceptionally difficult cases). These listed products are permitted only for precisely identified uses with clearly defined restrictions.
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9.5 Application and recording of pesticides
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All pesticide applications must be registered with name, date, crop-pest / crop- disease combination, dosage and field identification where applied.
Buffer zones of adequate size between treated crop areas and sensitive off-crop areas, (surface water, springs, ecological infrastructures), must be observed, (see point 2.6).
The official pre-harvest intervals to minimise pesticide residues must be followed and should, if possible, be extended. They must be recorded for all applications of crop protection product and evidence should be provided that they have been observed. In situations with continuous harvesting, systems must be in place in the field to ensure that safety rules are sufficiently followed (e.g. warning signals).
Spraying during windy weather conditions when wind velocity is exceeding 5m/sec, is not allowed.
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It is strongly recommended that the application of pesticides is limited to the smallest possible area (e.g. band spraying, spot treatments, field and site specific localized treatment).
The use of best application techniques available to minimize drift and loss is highly recommended.
Small untreated areas, (zero treatment or "spray windows"), should be maintained in each crop and in each major plot/field except for arthropod pests, diseases and weeds declared as "highly dangerous/ contagious" by national authorities or in cases with high infectious pests or diseases.
Perennial crops: The use of methods to calculate the right dose of pesticides and spray volume to be applied as a function of the plant growth stage and canopy architecture - such as for instance the TRV (Tree Row Volume) or the LWA (Leaf Wall Area) methods – is highly recommended. Always explore this keeping in mind the specific properties of each pesticide-active ingredient.
Reduced dosages (rates) are possible (especially in herbicides) if applied on the user’s own risk (declined liability of companies) and if resistance management criteria (especially fungicides) do not impose the full dosage.
The applied dose rate and water volume should be adapted to the area where the treatment is needed and its structure. In case of vertical crops such as pome fruit, the crop canopy area has to be considered, since it is recognized that the concentration dose expression - e.g. dose per hL or % - is no longer sufficient. To allow the three‐dimensional nature of the crop to be considered, the dose rate (on the label) should to expressed in e.g. kg or L per ha of Leaf Wall Area (LWA) or in kg or L per m3 of Tree Row Volume (TRV). The grower should have sufficient technical knowledge or external technical support to calculate/determine the LWA or TRV of the orchard(s) he/she wants to spray. The used water volume should also be adapted to the canopy area (for a full cover spray a runoff water volume is recommended). The exact concentration of the product (l or kg per l water used for spraying) is of secondary importance, as long as the required product per unit leaf wall area is deposited by the water over the full canopy. In exceptional cases the concentration (product dose rate/water volume) can be of primary importance, e.g. for treatment of a product with physical action (which depends on the concentration) or a spot application in an “Attract & Kill” strategy.
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9.6 Efficient and safe storage and handling of pesticides
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The basic requirements of Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) with respect to storage (9.6.1), safe handling application and training (9.6.2) and disposal of surplus mix, obsolete pesticides and empty containers (9.6.3), must be fulfilled and outlined in IP guidelines.
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9.6.1 Storage
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Pesticides must be stored in accordance to legal regulations, in a locked room and separated from other materials. Keys and access to the pesticide store must be limited to workers with formal training in the handling of pesticides. Pesticides must only be stored in their original package.
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9.6.2 Safe handling, application and training
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There must be adequate facilities for measuring, mixing and filling the products.
Adequate emergency facilities, such as running water, eyewash facilities, first aid box and emergency procedures, must be provided to deal with potential operator contamination.
Operators must have appropriate protective clothing and equipment for all operations involving chemicals.
All sprayer operators must have appropriate training and hold, where relevant, the appropriate certificate of competence.
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9.6.3 Disposal of surplus mix, obsolete pesticides and empty containers
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Surplus mix or tank washings must either be sprayed onto a designated untreated part of the crop or disposed of by a registered waste contractor or applied in a biodegradation unit.
The safe disposal of spare pesticides must be planned and recorded. They must only be disposed of through an approved chemical waste contractor. Empty pesticide containers must be rinsed with water three times and the rinse water returned to the spray tank. Empty containers must not be re-used but should be crushed or perforated to prevent re-use.
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Under normal circumstances surplus spray mix should not occur. However, if surplus should occur, disposal must comply with local regulations. Applications onto designated fallow land should demonstrate that this is legal practice and that there is no risk of surface water contamination.
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9.7 Spraying equipment (pesticides) and technique
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The basic requirements of Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) with respect to the operation and maintenance of spray equipment must be fulfilled and outlined in IP guidelines.
The equipment must be kept in a good state of repair. Adequate functioning of the equipment must be verified before each treatment. A thorough technical service of the equipment, (especially manometers and nozzles), should follow the national rules and obligations.
Equipment must be verified every 4 year (3 years from 2021) or according to the national guidelines by a competent organisation for correct operation and calibration.
The use of aircraft and helicopters is forbidden, except for situations where access to the plot is impossible because of exceptional weather conditions, or if plot topography allows no other way of spraying.
Radial flow air assisted sprayers traditionally used for tree and bush fruit spraying are often inefficient and generate high levels of spray drift. Wherever possible spraying equipment and spraying conditions minimising the health risk of the operator and drift must be preferred and tractors must be fitted with a cab.
The spray impact on the environment can be minimised by the proper calculation of the amount of product needed per ha.
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The use of drift reduction techniques with the least drift and pesticide loss should be encouraged whilst maintaining efficacy.
When new sprayers are purchased, transverse flow design, tunnel sprayers or sprayers allowing treatment of each side of the row should where possible be selected. Atomizers must be equipped with stop drop system on the nozzles.
Spraying equipment and spraying conditions minimising the health risk of the operator and drift should be preferred.
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9.8 Pesticide residues
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Legal requirements of pesticide residues must be fulfilled.
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